Child And Adolescent Development

Child and Adolescent Development | BS Psychology 2025 - 2026 PSY201 – Janna Sachiel M. Jose | Professor Aaron John V. Castaneda 1 | 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles Functional Illiteracy ● Cause of unemployment ○ Can read but can’t converse well ○ Can write, but can’t produce coherent papers ○ Walang ambag sa society Teaching learning approaches 1. Teacher-centered and student-centered learning a. b. Both are influenced by: i. Variety of topics ii. Level of learners In student-centered learning, | 2nd Year, Term 3 (a) The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals (5) Thinking about Thinking (Metacognition) (a) Higher order thinking strategies (HOTS) for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking (6) Context of Learning (a) Learning is influenced by environmental factors (culture, technology, and instructional practices) Motivational & Affective Factors (7) Motivational & Emotional Influences (a) Motivation affects learning (b) Motivation to learn is influenced by emotional states, beliefs, interests & goals, and habits of thinking 14 Learner-centered Principles ● Consistent with more than a century of research on teaching and learning ● Integrates research and practice in various areas of psychology, including: ● ○ Developmental ○ Educational ○ Experimental ○ Social ○ Clinical ○ Organizational ○ Community ○ School psychology Provide framework for developing and incorporating the components of new designs for schooling ○ They emphasize the active and reflective nature of learning and learners ● level their goals & motivation (i) From this perspective, educational practice will be for (d) Teachers must be sensitive towards the factors of students (i) (a) stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, & providing for personal choice and control (b) Personal goals influence motivation to learn (c) Novelty -> Motivation or Frustration (d) Internal curiosity (9) Effects of Motivation on Effort (a) Acquisition of complex knowledge & skills requires extended learner effort (b) Operant conditioning (i) (a) The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience (2) Goals of the Learning Process (a) The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge (3) Construction of Knowledge (a) The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways (4) Strategic Thinking Introducing reinforcement and punishment for unmotivated students is redesigned with the primary focus on the learner (1) Nature of the Learning Process Gender, Culture, Language) (8) Intrinsic Motivation to learn most likely to improve when the educational system CLUSTER 1: Cognitive & Metacognitive Factors if the professor is worth studying for, then the course is worth studying Widely shared & implicitly recognized in many excellent programs found in today’s schools ● (c) Students also prospect their professors to Developmental & Social Factors (10) Developmental Influences on learning (a) Learning is most effective when differential development within & across physical, intellectual, emotional, & social domains is taken into account (b) Physical/Physiological barriers that hinder learning (i) Could be injuries (pilay), disabilities (visual, speaking, etc; intellectual) (ii) Physiological = sickness/illness (11) Social influences on learning (a) Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others (b) I.e. Religion Individual Differences Factors (c) A senior citizen can still learn to play the (12) Individual differences in learning (a) Learners have different strategies, guitar without knowing how to when they were younger approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity (2) Development is plastic (a) Every human has the potential (or (13) Learning and Diversity capability) to change (a) Learning is effective when differences in (i) learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account (b) I.e. multiple intelligences (Howard Gardner) may kakayahang magbago (b) Learning is possible despite genetics (i) (c) I.e. Code switching — switching languages for effectives TRANS: Lahat ng tao may kaya at E.g. Short basketball players can still play thanks to training (c) Development itself can change over time (14) Standards & Assessment (i) (a) Setting appropriately and challenging Plasticity - the ability of the brain to adapt, either structurally or standards and assessing the learner and functionally (e.g., A child who learns their learning progress how to use gadgets at an early age (i) Diagnostic Assessment 1) can adapt to technology more Testing prior to the instruction (e.g., pre-test) easily) (ii) Negative Plasticity - evolving (ii) (PROCESS) Formative Assessment (iii) (OUTCOME) Summative their schoolwork may soon lose Assessment their critical thinking skills) 1) 1) During the instruction student who relies solely on AI for After the instruction (b) Item analysis (i) through decline in function (e.g., a (3) Development is Multidimensional Needed to find where you need to emphasize teaching (a) Biological (i) Physical growth of 1) REVISE - grammar issues 2) RETAIN - 80% got it correct organs/limbs/body parts 3) REJECT - too hard or too lobe develops at around age easy 26-30) (ii) Brain development (e.g., the frontal (b) Cognitive 2 | Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development (i) Intelligence, memory, problem-solving, and anything involving logic and thinking (ii) APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Creativity = also part of cognitive (i.e., right-brained people = more creative) ● (1) Traditional Development ○ Human growth is linear, ■ a stage-based process focused primarily on childhood ■ It’s based on patterns that show stages of growth and development ○ You need to learn something first before moving on to the next step/stage ● (2) Life Span Development ○ Human growth is continuous ■ A lifelong process shaped by cognitive and social changes (c) Socioemotional (i) Emotions, feelings, relationships (4) Development is Relatively Orderly (a) There is a specific order in development (i) But there is also a possibility for children to develop early or late (b) To learn a specific skill, you need to learn step 1 first: (i) (e.g., walk -> run -> jump) (5) Development takes place gradually (a) “Konti-konti”; “Competence by Competence” (b) EX. Babies coo (newborn), then they babble Paul Bates’ CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT (1) Development is lifelong (a) Development is continuous (it never stops) (b) A person can still develop regardless of their age and capability (6-8mos), then single words (12-18mos) (c) Speech Development (i) Speed Rate - how fast a child can speak coherently (ii) Accuracy Rate - how accurate the sounds they produce are (d) Cognitive Development -> also gradual (e) Personality -> gradual in a way that develops over time ● Developed values and an ethical system ● Accepting one’s body ● Teaching: Emotional interest -> Relatability ● “Everything is new to me.” ● Time of mental chaos (“Teen Angst”) -> Repulsive/Rebellious behavior [4] Early Adulthood [19-29 years old] ● “Everything is boring and confusing.” ● Selecting a partner ● Starting a family ● Managing a home ● Building a career ● Assuming civic responsibility (aka being a responsible citizen) ● Forming intimate relationships ○ Cephalocaudal ● Cephalo - Head; Caudal - Tail ● Development happens from the Head towards the Tail ● Lifting head, standing, and walking ● From Torso to Trunk Proximodistal ● Proximo - Near; Distal - Far ● Growth from the center of the body, outward ● Reaching with a hand, then crawling ● Gross motor skills first, before fine motor skills (6) Development is Contextual (a) Depending on the environment/era you were exposed to (b) Generation also matters (c) Learning and development matter in context (7) Development involves growth, maintenance, and Shifting focus from interest and romance to stability [5] Middle Adulthood (30-60 years old) ● Raising children ● Achieving career stability ● Contributing to society ● Maintaining relationships ● Adjusting to physical changes ● Caring for aging parents ● Balancing the responsibilities between their own families and caring for their parents [6] Later Maturity (61 years and over) ● Also called Late adulthood ● Adjusting to retirement ● Coping with physical decline ● Maintaining social roles ● Reflecting on life ● Adapting to loss of spouse or peers (death) regulation Issues on Human Development (a) Repetition = retention Nature vs Nurture Stages of Development ● inheritance and environmental experiences [1] Infancy and Early Childhood [0-5 years old] ● Learning to walk, talk, eat solid foods, and control elimination (poopoo/weewee), forming basic concepts, developing emotional attachment, and Continuity vs Discontinuity ● ● Physical skills for play ● Building a healthy self-concept, getting along with changes Stability vs Change ● Developing conscience and morality ● This is where personality mainly develops ● In teaching, you need to simplify concepts so that they can learn [3] Adolescence [13-18 years old] ● Achieving emotional independence ● Developing identity ● Forming mature peer relationships ● Preparing for career Some traits remain consistent over time, while others evolve or transform across the lifespan peers, and learning basic academic skills ● Development occurs either as a gradual, continuous process or through distinct stages with sudden learning the difference between right and wrong [2] Middle Childhood [6-12 years old] Development is influenced by both genetic Research in Child and Adolescent Development Teachers ● As consumers/end users of research ● As researchers themselves The Scientific Method 1. Identify and define the problem 2. Determine the hypothesis ○ Morality principle 3. Collect and analyze the data ○ Moral conscience, responsible for justifying 4. Formulate conclusions 5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis what’s wrong and what’s right ○ “This is wrong because…, this is right because…” Research Designs ● Case Study ○ An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or situation over time ○ E.g. Case of Hellen Keller (The deaf, blind and mute child) ● Correlational Study ○ Examines the relationship between 2 or more variables without manipulating them ● Experimental Study ○ Researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) to observe its effect on another dependent variable ● Naturalistic Observation ○ Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference or manipulation ● Longitudinal study ○ Follows the same group of participants over a long period of time ● Cross-sectional Study ○ Compares different groups of participants of varying ages at a single point in time ● Sequential study ○ Combines elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs ● Action Research ○ A practical, problem-solving approach conducted by practitioners in their own setting Data-Gathering Techniques ● Observation ● Physiological measures ● Standardized ● Interviews and questionnaires ○ Learners are not blank slates ● Life-history records ○ They carry emotional histories formed in EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS ● Early experiences shape the learner early childhood 3 | Developmental Theories with a ○ Students confidence, fears, and even resistance to participation may be rooted in Focus on Educational Implications experiences long before they entered school ■ FREUD | Psychosexual and Psychoanalytic Theory of Development suppression ● Sigmund Freud ● Implies that children (students) are not entirely blank Behavior has hidden meaning ○ Emphasis on the unconscious mind ○ disruptiveness/withdrawn behavior may be expression of unresolved mental/internal slates conflicts FREUD’s Psychoanalytic Theory ● ● ● ■ ID Pleasure principle ○ Wants immediate satisfaction ○ “Do this, do that, I want that” ○ ○ Reality principle ○ ○ Balances the morality and impulses ○ “You should do this, you shouldn’t do that” Superego Teachers should respond with curiosity rather than hostility ○ Ego Explains trauma repression and ● Role of Balance and Discipline Id/Ego/Superego reflect tension between impulse, reality, and morality Teachers also guide students to regulate impulses and ethical decisions ○ PIAGET | Cognitive Theory different thing Jean Piaget ● Focuses on how children think, not just what they know ● Transfer of information/meaning to a ● Learning is an active process ○ If A is to B, then C is to D ○ E.g., Wheel = Car, Knife = Cut Deductive Reasoning ○ Top-down logical process; general to specific Basic Concepts from Piaget ● Schema ○ mammals = whales can breathe air Assimilation ○ Educational Implications ● Adding new information to existing Learning is an active construction ○ knowledge ● Let students question what they learn — students should not be passive learners Accomodation ○ E.g. all mammals breathe air = whales are Mental framework or the already obtained information ● ○ ○ Changing the schema based on the new Learners should actively build their understanding through experience information ● Equilibriation ○ Balance between assimilation and ● accommodation ○ ○ Judgement of information Abstract Reasoning Learning depends on developmental Teaching something before a child is cognitively ready/prepared will result to [1] Sensori-motor Stage (Birth - age 2) ○ ■ readiness ○ Object permanence Experiential Learning Readiness matters more than pressure Piaget’s Cognitive Development ● ■ memorization, not understanding ● “Out of sight, out of mind” Teaching should match the stage ○ Each stage of cognitive development has its own characteristics. Expecting abstract [2] Pre-operational Stage (age 2-7) ● reasoning from a 3-year-old can lead to Symbolic function ○ frustration ability to understand symbolism ○ Effective teaching requires aligning ● Egocentrism methods, language, and expectations with ● Centration the learner’s cognitive level ○ Focus on 1 object size ○ Kapag mukhang malaki, ibig sabihin malaki ERIKSON | Psychosocial Theory talaga ● Irreversibility ○ ● Incapacity to form logic Mathematics ○ Di kaya mag-transpose or any other Erik Erikson’s key Ideas ● Development happens through 8 stages ● Each stage has a psychosocial crisis ● Resolving the crisis leads to healthy development intermediate mathematical equation (i.e. algebra) ● Animism ○ ● 1. Infancy Animating objects; pretending that 2. Early childhood inanimate objects can talk and move 3. Preschool Transductive Reasoning 4. School age ○ Specific to Specific 5. Adolescence ○ E.g. a teacher drives a honda car, therefore 6. Young adulthood all teachers drive a honda car 7. Middle Adulthood 8. Maturity/Late adulthood [3] Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 y.o) ● Decentering ● Reversibility ● Conservation ● Seriation [4] Formal Operational (12+) ● Hypothetical Reasoning ○ Exploring possibilities, consequences, and explanations using “if-then” statements ● Stages Analogical Reasoning Educational Implications ● Educational Implications Education is deeply emotional, not just intellectual ○ ● Learning = social act (collaboration, Education shapes not just minds, but also moral judgment socialization) because humans are social ○ ○ acquisition, but also about developing the A student’s ability to participate, take risks, or capacity to reason about what is right and engage in tasks is often influenced by just whether they feel secure, valued, and ○ supported ● The Classroom as a Space for Identity Formation ○ The Power of Moral Dilemmas (ADOLESCENCE) students are navigating the ○ ○ academics ■ Space where learners explore who pushed to think critically, justify their actions they are and decisions, and consider multiple Teachers play a crucial role in perspectives ○ expression, and guiding students toward a clearer sense of self Each stage presents a unique psychosocial ○ Works best for HS - College students (post-conventional stage) ● The Teacher as a Moral Model challenge ■ Learning turns into a process of ethical reflection Sensitivity to Developmental Crises ○ When students are exposed to complex situations w/o clear answers, they are affirming identity, allowing ● Kohlberg emphasized the use of dilemmas to stimulate moral reasoning School = more than just a place for ■ Schools = spaces where moral thinking is formed, not just enforced ● crisis of identity vs role confusion ○ Education is not just about knowledge beings ○ Misunderstanding these struggles Students can observe how teachers act and adapt those behaviors may lead teachers to misinterpret ■ behavior ○ Fairness, consistency, and integrity in the classroom must be seen in A student defying authority may be going the teacher’s themselves through identity vs role confusion, not just simply rebelling KOHLBERG | Stages of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg ● Lev Vygotsky ● Focuses on social interaction in learning ● Culture plays a key role in development Focuses on moral reasoning (how we decide what’s right or wrong) ● VYGTOSKY | Sociocultural Theory Based on justice and ethical thinking Zone of Proximal Development ● Gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with help Scaffolding ● Support given by the teacher or a friend (MKO) ● Gradually removed as the learner improves More Knowledgeable other (MKO) ● Someone with more knowledge or skill that can help the student ● Can be a teacher, friend, or parent, anyone Social Interaction ● Learning through collaboration; group work enhances understanding Educational Implications ● Learning is inherently social ○ Learning doesn’t happen in isolation ○ Understanding is first formed through interaction and collaboration before it ● Macrosystem — sociocultural values (i.e. filipino) ● Chronosystem — time/events (e.g. COVID) Educational Implication ● The Learner is Shaped by More than the Classroom becomes internal ○ ○ ○ but also influenced by family, peers, their the idea of others community, and larger societal forces Challenges the idea of silent, individual ● Strong School-Family Connections Matter learning and highlights the value of ● ○ ○ Mesosystem highlights the importance of dialogue, collaboration, and shared relationships between different parts of a experiences in the classroom learner’s life The Power of Guided Learning ○ Students are not only products of schooling, Ideas are never unique, some are inspired by ○ When parents and teachers communicate ZPD reveals that students can achieve more and collaborate, students receive consistent with guidance than on their own support Teacher’s role = actively supporting learners ■ as they move from what they can do to what when it is shared between home they can almost do ■ Teaching = a process of careful and school ● Teaching Requires Understanding the Whole Child guidance rather than just ○ instruction ● from family issues, economic conditions, The teacher is a guide, mentor, and social pressures that could affect their co-participant in learning ○ learning This humanizes education, emphasizing ○ relationships and interaction rather than The teacher walks with the learner, not ahead of them BROFENBRENNER | Ecological Theory environments, rather than just a student ● 4 | Prenatal Development, Infancy and Toddlerhood Prenatal Development Urie Bronfenbrenner ● Focuses on environmental influences on development ● This challenges teachers to understand learners as individuals in complex authority alone ○ A student’s struggles in class may not originate from academics, and could be The Teacher as a Facilitator of Growth ○ Education becomes more effective 1. Germinal Stage [0-2 weeks] Development is shaped by interacting systems 2. a. Earliest stage b. Begins at fertilization Embryonic Stage [2-8 weeks] a. Major organs and body structures begin to form -> critical period for development 3. Fetal Stage [8 weeks to birth] a. Stage involves growth and maturation Teratogens ● Harmful substances or environmental factors that can cause defects to the baby during pregnancy ● Could be drugs, alcohol, bacteria, cigarettes, infections Babies often lose 7-10% of their weight during the first few weeks of being a newborn ● Babies are born with some extra fluid, and it’s normal for them to lose this fluid ● Weight loss is temporary; they’ll regain that once they start feeding Summary ● Microsystem — Family (parents, siblings) ● Mesosystem — Connections (titas, titos, lolas, lolos) ● Exosystem — indirect influence (parent’s workplace, teachers, local government) NEWBORN REFLEXES ● Babinski Reflex ○ An infant reflex that is observed when the sole of the foot is stroked, causing the toes to fan out and the big toe to move upward ● Root Reflex ○ When the baby’s mouth is stroked, their mouth will open ○ ● Often helps with feeding Moro Reflex ○ “Startle reflex” ○ Triggered by a sudden loud noise or movement ○ ● Baby will extend their arms and palms up Sucking Reflex ○ An infant will begin to suck when an object touches the top of the mouth ● Tonic Neck Reflex ○ “Fencing” ○ When an infant turns their head to one side, the legs and arms will extend while the leg on the opposite side will flex ● Palmar Grasp reflex ○ A baby involuntarily wraps their fingers around an adult’s fingers when the palm is touched Infants often increase by about 30% in the first 5 months By the time a child reaches 2 years old, their brain is approx. 75% the weight of an adult brain 4 | Prenatal Development, Infancy and Toddlerhood Prenatal Development 1. 2. Germinal Stage [0-2 weeks] a. Earliest stage b. Begins at fertilization Embryonic Stage [2-8 weeks] a. Major organs and body structures begin to form -> critical period for development 3. Fetal Stage [8 weeks to birth] a. Stage involves growth and maturation Teratogens ● Harmful substances or environmental factors that can cause defects to the baby during pregnancy ● Could be drugs, alcohol, bacteria, cigarettes, infections Babies often lose 7-10% of their weight during the first few weeks of being a newborn ● Babies are born with some extra fluid, and it’s normal for them to lose this fluid ● Weight loss is temporary; they’ll regain that once they start feeding NEWBORN REFLEXES ● Babinski Reflex ○ An infant reflex that is observed when the sole of the foot is stroked, causing the toes to fan out and the big toe to move upward ● Root Reflex ○ When the baby’s mouth is stroked, their mouth will open ○ ● Often helps with feeding Moro Reflex ○ “Startle reflex” ○ Triggered by a sudden loud noise or movement ○ ● Baby will extend their arms and palms up Sucking Reflex ○ An infant will begin to suck when an object touches the top of the mouth ● Tonic Neck Reflex ○ “Fencing” ○ When an infant turns their head to one side, the legs and arms will extend while the leg on the opposite side will flex ● Palmar Grasp reflex ○ A baby involuntarily wraps their fingers around an adult’s fingers when the palm is touched Infants often increase by about 30% in the first 5 months By the time a child reaches 2 years old, their brain is approx. 75% the weight of an adult brain Child and Adolescent Development | BS Psychology 2025 - 2026 PSY201 – Janna Sachiel M. Jose | Professor Aaron John V. Castaneda | 2nd Year, Term 3: FINALS 6 | Early Childhood (The Preschooler) Preschoolers: ● Develop motor skills ● Think symbolically but illogically ● Learn social roles and emotions Effective teaching must: ● Be developmentally appropriate ● Encourage active learning ● Support the whole child PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ● ● Preschool years (approx. 3-6 y/o) are marked by steady but slower physical growth compared to infancy and toddlerhood HOWEVER they gain: ○ Better body control ○ Improved coordination ○ Increased independence in movement BIG IDEAS about the PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS ● Significant changes in physical growth ● Physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills ● Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age ● Proper nutrition & the right amount of sleep = very important ● Caregivers & teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development of preschoolers ● Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the appropriate adaptions made in the classroom, materials & activities GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Involve large muscle groups responsible for major body movements ● Walking, running, and hopping ● Climbing and balancing ● Jumping and skipping ● Throwing and kicking with direction and control Locomotor skills become more coordinated and efficient ● Physical activity level is usually high in preschoolers FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Involve small muscle coordination, particularly hands and fingers. ● Drawing shapes and figures ● Holding pencils correctly ● Cutting with scissors ● Dressing (buttoning, tying) Scribbling -> controlled drawing -> drawing recognizable shapes ● Increased precision and hand-eye coordination ○ Compared to younger ● ● ● ● PHYSICAL GROWTH CHANGES Growth becomes more proportional Legs lengthen, improving balance Center of gravity shifts -> better posture and movement Increased muscle strength FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Nutrition a. Essential for growth and energy b. Poor nutrition -> delayed development 2. Sleep a. They need 10-12 hours of sleep daily b. Sleep supports: i. Growth hormone release ii. Brain development 3. Physical Activity a. Enhances: i. Muscles development ii. Coordination iii. Overall health 4. Health Conditions a. Illness or disability may affect development COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ● ● NATURE OF PRESCHOOL THINKING Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Key Features ○ Thinking is symbolic & imaginative ○ Reasoning = intuitive, not logical ■ Preschoolers can make their own reasoning based on what they learned ○ Children focus on appearance rather than reality ■ “What you see is what you get” ■ Parang object permanence pero with concepts SYMBOLIC AND INTUITIVE THINKING Symbolic Function ● Ability to use symbols (words, images, objects) to represent reality ● Seen in: ○ Pretend play (i.e. roleplaying. “Ikaw yung nanay, ako yung tatay”) ○ Drawing ○ Language use Intuitive Thinking ● Based on perception, not logic ● Children cannot explain reasoning clearly ○ They just have reasons, but can’t back them up and explain how they got those reasons LIMITATIONS OF THINKING Egocentrism ● Difficulty understanding others’ perspectives Centration ● Focus on one aspect of the situation only Irreversibility ● Cannot mentally reverse actions ○ Lack of Conservation ● Child thinks taller glass has more water even if amounts are equal ○ Again, appearance is more important than logic ● INFORMATION PROCESSING & MEMORY Attention ● Attention span increases but is still limited ● Easily distracted ● ● Memory Development ● Recognition and recall improve ● Can remember: ○ Stories ○ Instructions ○ Personal Experiences ● ● ● THEORY OF MIND Understanding that others have: ○ Different beliefs ○ Different emotions Develops around age 4-5 Importance: ○ Serves as the foundation for developing empathy and effective social interaction Development ● Age 2-3 ○ Awareness that the mind exists ● Age 3–5 ○ Rapid development of thinking about thoughts (metacognition) Key Abilities ● Recognize own and others’ thoughts ● Understand false beliefs ● Distinguish appearance vs reality ● Differentiate fantasy vs reality Language Development It is rapid, socially influenced, and cognitively linked. ● Preschoolers learn language through interaction ○ They use language to think and communicate ● Adult support is still crucial through: ○ Scaffolding (Vygotsky) ○ Guidance ○ Interaction SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT BIG IDEAS ON SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ● Development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler ● A healthy self-concept is needed for them to interact with others ● Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children ● Their social development is shown through the stages of play ● The care-giving of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers’ socio-emotional development ● They are interested in building friendships ERIKSON’S STAGE: INITIATIVE VS GUILT Initiative ● Child begins to: ○ Explore ○ Create ○ Lead activities Guilt ● Occurs when: ○ Child is discouraged ● ● Efforts are criticized EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Expression of basic emotions: ○ Joy, anger, fear, sadness Development of self-concept Learning emotional control SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Interaction with peers increases Learning: ○ Sharing ○ Cooperation ○ Rules STAGES OF PLAY (PARTEN’S THEORY) Unoccupied Play (0-3 months) Baby is making movements with their arms, legs, etc They’re discovering how their body moves Solitary Play (0-2 months) When a child plays alone and is not interested in playing with others quite yet Spectator/Onlooker Behavior (2 years) When a child observes other children playing but will not play with them Parallel Play (2+ years) When a child plays alongside or near others but does not play with them Associate Play (3-4 years) When a child starts to interact with others during play, but not much cooperation is required Cooperative Play (4+ years) When a child plays with others and has interest in both the activity and other kids involved in playing ● ● ● SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT Children begin to describe themselves: ○ Physical traits ○ Abilities Develop confidence through success GENDER AND SOCIAL INFLUENCES Gender roles learned through: ○ Family ○ Culture ○ Media PARENTAL STYLES Authoritarian ● High Control, Low Responsiveness (Cold and demanding) ● Parents enforce strict rules and demand unquestioning obedience (because I said so) ● Mistakes = punishment, with no room for negotiation ● OUTCOME ○ Children raised by authoritative parents end up being highly obedient and proficient, but have higher anxiety and suppressed social skills ● CHARACTER EXAMPLE: Mother Gothel (Tangled) ○ Despite not being Rapunzel’s biological mother, Gothel expected absolute obedience from Rapunzel in hopes of keeping the magic from the flower all to herself. ○ Other examples: Captain von Trapp (The Sound of Music), Queen Elinor (Brave), Lady Tremaine (Cinderella), Emily Gilmore (Gilmore Girls) Authoritative (Preferred) ● High Control, High Responsiveness (Warm, but demanding) ● Parents set clear limits and explain the reasons behind the rules ● They inflict rules but also listen to the child’s perspective, validate their feelings, and take up authority in the household ● OUTCOME: Children raised by Authoritative parents grow up to be confident, self-reliant, emotionally intuitive adults ● CHARACTER EXAMPLE: Mr and Mrs Anderson (Inside out) ○ Despite setting rules, they support and listen to Riley’s perspective. This is seen in the way they reacted to Riley coming back home after running away and even stealing her mother’s credit card ○ Other examples: Phil and Claire Dunphy (Modern Family), Marge Simpson (The Simpsons), Tony Stark and Pepper Potts (Marvel), Aunt May (Spider-man) Cognitive Development ● Ask open-ended questions ● Encourage exploration ● Provide problem-solving tasks Socio-emotional Development ● Model positive behavior ● Encourage cooperation ● Support emotional expression 7 | Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler) Middle Childhood is a stage of slow but steady development: ● Physical, Cognitive, Socio-emotional ● Children receive less direct attention compared to early childhood ● Support system (family & peers) becomes very important PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Permissive (Indulgent) ● Low Control, High Responsiveness (Warm but undemanding) ● Parents are highly affectionate and involved but set LITTLE TO NO rules and boundaries ● Act too much like a friend, with little to no authority—usually to avoid conflict and lets the child regulate on their own ● OUTCOME: Children may struggle with authority, are extra impulsive, and may experience academic challenges due to lack of structure ○ In short: spoiled. ● CHARACTER EXAMPLE: June George (Mean Girls) ○ Labeling herself as a “cool mom”, she tries so hard to be likeable to her own daughter that she abandons parental boundaries and doesn’t set rules for Regina and her sister. ○ Other examples: Lorelai Gilmore (Gilmore Girls), Homer Simpson (The Simpsons) Uninvolved (Neglectful) ● Low Control, Low Responsiveness (Cold and Undemanding) ● Parents are detached from their children ● No affection and no demanding, often only providing the basic needs of their children but are otherwise indifferent or ignorant ○ Financially present, but often physically or emotionally absent ● OUTCOME: Children raised by uninvolved parents often grow into adults who lack self-control, have low self-esteem, and struggle with trusting others and creating healthy relationships ● CHARACTER EXAMPLE: Mr and Mrs McCallister (Home Alone) ○ Kevin’s parents are the textbook definition of uninvolved parents. Despite the amount of children that they have and their focus on their career, they neglect Kevin and often leave him behind and forget him entirely. ○ Other examples: Monica and Frank Gallagher (Shameless), Eudoria Holmes (Enola), Coraline’s parents (Coraline), The Good King (Snow White’s father), Anakin Skywalker/Darth Vader (Star Wars) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Physical Development ● Provide safe environments ● Encourage active play BONES AND MUSCLES Peak period for bone development Importance of: ○ Proper nutrition ■ Especially calcium for bone growth ○ Physical Activity Lifestyle affects bone mass and strength MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Gross Motor Skills ○ Running, jumping, skipping, dancing ○ Increased strength and coordination Fine Motor Skills ○ Writing, drawing ○ Using tools (pencils, scissors) MOTOR SKILLS COMPONENTS Coordination ○ Controlled body movement Balance ○ Stability (static & dynamic) Speed ○ Quick movement Agility ○ Change direction efficiently Power ○ Exert force quickly DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS Eye-hand coordination Muscle control Personal hygiene Safety awareness COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ● ROLE OF TEACHERS AND CAREGIVERS GROWTH PATTERNS Growth is slow but steady Average: ○ Height = 2 inches per year ○ Weight = 6.5 pounds per year Body becomes more proportioned Children adjust gradually to bodily changes Piaget’s Theory Intelligence develops through: ○ Assimilation ■ Adding new information to existing schema ○ Accomodation ■ Changing schema based on new information ● Cognitive development occurs in stages CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (Ages 7-11) ● Children think logically, but about concrete situations ● Struggle with abstract thinking ● ● ● FRIENDSHIP DEVELOPMENT Peer groups become important Usually same age and social status Helps develop: ○ Social skills ○ Emotional support KEY COGNITIVE SKILLS 1. 2. ● ● ● ● Logic a. Uses inductive reasoning (specific -> general) b. Difficulty with deductive reasoning Reversibility a. Understand that actions can be reversed b. E.g., 3 + 4 = 7 | 7 - 4 = 3 COGNITIVE MILESTONES Skills develop sequentially Rapid learning until 8 years old, then stabilizes Children can: ○ Tell left from right ○ Speak and express ideas clearly ○ Understand time (Days, dates) ○ Follow complex stories ○ Read and form words INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY The brain works like a computer: Process: 1. Sensory memory - Receives input 2. Short-term memory - Temporary storage 3. Long-term memory - Permanent storage 4. Retrieval - recalling information ● ● SELF-CONTROL Children begin to: ○ Take pride in achievements ○ Respond to feedback Positive reinforcement builds: ○ Confidence ○ Emotional maturity IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS ● ● ● ● PHYSICAL Integrate movement-based activities (games, group tasks) Provide opportunities for fine motor development (writing, drawing) Ensure safe and supportive classroom environment Be mindful of health, nutrition and fatigue ● COGNITIVE Use concrete examples and real-life situations Incorporate hands-on and experiential learning Encourage logical thinking through problem-solving tasks Avoid overly abstract concepts without scaffolding ● ● ● ● SOCIO-EMOTIONAL Give positive reinforcement and recognition Provide achievable tasks to build confidence Promote collaboration and teamwork Address bullying, isolation, and emotional needs ● ● ● 8 | Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler) Learning improves through ● Repetition ● Encoding ● Organization PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ● SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ERIKSON’S THEORY Industry vs Inferiority ● ● ● ● ● ● Industry ○ Success, competence Inferiority ○ Failure, low self-esteem SELF-CONCEPT Understanding oneself: ○ Traits ○ Abilities ○ Values Healthy self-concept ○ Feeling accepted ○ Confidence in abilities ○ Not about being “better than others” SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Children become more independent They value: ○ Fairness ○ Equality ○ Responsibility ○ Kindness ● ● ● ● “The calm before the growth spurt of adolescence” On average, girls are generally as much as 2 years ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity ○ Often times, even emotionally too NORMAL PHYSICAL CHANGES For girls ○ Budding breast ○ Menstrual period ○ Appear to be “chubby” For boys ○ More hair growth ○ Height growth spurt, voice deepening ○ Leaner body mass per inch of height Children at this stage have growth spurts ○ Sudden boost in height and weight that are usually accompanied by an increase in appetite and food intake Children become very concerned about their physical appearance ○ Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very conscious about their dealings with children COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities they can now utilize ● ● ● ● ● ● Their thinking skills have become more effective as compared to their primary years READING DEVELOPMENT Children at this stage is marked by a wide application of word attack ○ “Reading to learn” stage Teacher should: Increased worded activities (i.e. word problems in mathematics) ATTENTION Older children have longer, more flexible attention span compared to younger children CREATIVITY Open to exploring new things Usually at their best when the work is done in small pieces ○ Attention span is longer than the younger kids, but still pretty short SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Self Competence Belief in one’s ability to perform tasks successfully Confidence in skills and talents Self-Identity Understanding who you are Includes: interests, values, beliefs, and personality Examples: ○ “I am responsible” ○ “I enjoy helping others” Self-Concept Overall perception of oneself Combination of thoughts and feelings about oneself Includes: ○ Physical self ○ Academic self ○ Social Self ○ Emotional self Children in this stage show improved emotional understanding. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) ● Ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others and use this to guide and motivate behavior ● “High self awareness” ● 4 main areas: ○ Developing emotional self-awareness ○ Managing emotions ○ Reading emotions ○ Handling emotions Social Intelligence (SQ) ● Ability to relate and create + maintain social relationships Adversity Intelligence (AQ) ● Ability to bounce back from distressing events ● Adversity = a difficult situation, misfortune, or hardship ● ● Building Friendships For children: good peer relationships are very important The approval and belongingness they receive contribute to the stability and security of their emotional development ● ● ● Average ● Receives an average number of positive and negative nominations from peers ● Both liked and disliked, usually more liked—not someone who has tons of “enemies” within their peers ● “Normal”, typical students in the social scene ● CHARACTER EXAMPLE: Karen Smith (Mean Girls), Mia Thermopolis (The Princess Diaries) Neglected ● Very seldom nominated as best friend, but is not really disliked ● More often blends into the background, the “basket case” of the social scene; the “nerds” and “geeks”, the “weird” kids ● CHARACTER EXAMPLE: Barbara “Barb” Holland (Stranger Things), Mike Byers and his group (Stranger Things) Rejected ● Children who are “ostracised” from peer groups ● They participate less in the classroom, have negative attitudes on school attendance, and are more often reported as being lonely or find a group of whom they share the same feelings with ● Although usually loners, these students can be social but hostile ● For boys: ○ More impulsive, less attentive, and more disruptive ○ Emotionally reactive and slow to calm down (typical male ego) ○ Have fewer social skills to make friends ● CHARACTER EXAMPLE: Janis Ian (Mean girls), Eddie Munson (Early Seasons; Stranger Things) Controversial ● Frequently nominated as the best friend, and also disliked by peers ● Equally liked and equally disliked, although often more disliked than others ● The “mean girls”, or the controversial popular boy groups (i.e. Boys/girls at the back) ● CHARACTER EXAMPLES: Regina George (Mean Girls), Sharpay Evans (High School Musical), Margaret “Marga” Mondragon-Bartolome (Kadenang Ginto) ● ● ● Family Support Crucial at this stage — characterized by success and failure If children do not find a supportive family when they find their interest, they can get easily frustrated If the family is seen as the primary support system by the child, then failures and setbacks are easy to overcome instead of being something taken personally 9 | Adolescence (The High School Learner) 5 Types of Peer Status Popular ● Frequently nominated as the “best friend” ● Rarely disliked by peers They give out reinforcement, act naturally, keep open communication, show high emotional intelligence, and show enthusiasm and concern for others “Golden girls/boys”, the popular kids that everyone like; the achievers and the student leaders CHARACTER EXAMPLE: Cher Horowitz (Clueless), Austin Ames (A Cinderella Story) ● ● ADOLESCENCE Transitional stage between childhood and adulthood Involves significant physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes This usually begins with puberty and ends when individuals achieve greater independence and maturity ● ● ● The word “adolescence” comes from the latin word “adolescere”, which means “to grow into maturity” CHARACTERISTICS Rapid physical growth Emotional sensitivity Search for identity Increased peer influence Development of abstract thinking Desire for independence ● ● ● ● ● ● STAGES OF ADOLESCENCE ● ● EARLY ADOLESCENCE (10-13 y/o) The beginning of puberty Self-consciousness increases ● ● MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE (14-17) Strong peer influence Identity exploration becomes intense ● ● LATE ADOLESCENCE (18-21) Greater emotional stability More realistic decision-making PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Pubertal Changes Puberty ○ The biological process that leads to sexual maturity ○ Hormonal changes trigger physical growth and reproductive capability ○ May occur earlier or later, depending on genetics, nutrition, and environment ● ● ● ● ● ● COMMON CHANGES ● ● Deepening of voice Growth of facial and body hair Broadening of shoulders Increase in muscle mass Includes: ● Acne ● Facial hair ● Voice change ● Mood swings ● Genital growth ● Breast growth Girls ● ● ● ● Breast development Widening of hips Start of menstruation Increase in body fat distribution Includes: ● Breast “buds” ● Acne ● Body hair (armpit, pubic) ● Growth spurt ● Period ADOLESCENT SLEEPING HABITS Often experience changes in sleeping patterns due to hormonal changes and lifestyle factors Common Characteristics: ○ Preference for sleeping late ○ Difficulty waking up early ○ Sleep deprivation caused by gadgets and academic workload Effects of lack of sleep ○ Mood swings ○ Poor concentration ○ Low academic performance EXPLORATION OF IDEAL MASCULINE AND FEMININE PHYSIQUES ● They become increasingly aware of body image and societal expectations ● Influences: ○ Social media ○ Celebrities ○ Peer pressure ○ Cultural Standards ● Boys may desire muscular bodies; Girls may desire slim figures ● Boys ● ● SEXUAL MATURITY Achieved when adolescents become capable of reproduction Important concepts: ○ Menarche ■ First menstruation in girls ○ Spermarche ■ First ejaculation in boys Adolescents begin to develop romantic interests and curiosity about sexuality Educational Implications: ○ Teachers should provide accurate, age-appropriate, and respectful information about reproductive health ● ● THE IDEAL BODY “Ideal body” — socially constructed and varies across cultures and historical periods ○ 21st Century Philippines: Light-skin, Straight silky hair, slim figure, western features Concerns: ○ Body dissatisfaction ○ Eating Disorders ○ Low self-esteem Educational Implication ○ Teachers should emphasize health and self-acceptance rather than unrealistic beauty standards COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PIAGET’S FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING JEAN PIAGET: adolescents enter the formal operational stage ○ Where they develop the ability to think abstractly and logically ● Characteristics: ○ Ability to think about possibilities ○ Scientific reasoning ○ Logical problem-solving ○ Abstract thinking ● ● ● ● GROWTH SPURTS Sudden increases in height and weight during puberty Characteristics: ○ Girls generally experience growth spurts earlier than boys ○ Adolescents may feel awkward or uncoordinated during rapid growth ○ Nutritional needs increase significantly Educational Implications: ○ Teachers should understand that fatigue, hunger, and body discomfort may affect classroom performance SIEGLER’S INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS ● ROBERT SIEGLER: adolescents improve in information processing ● Adolescents may show: ○ Speed ■ Process information faster ○ ○ Complexity ■ Can handle more complicated tasks Increased Volume of Information Processing ■ Can store and manipulate more information METACOGNITION: THINKING ABOUT THINKING ● Types of Metacognitive Knowledge ○ Declarative Knowledge ■ Knowing what to do ○ Procedural Knowledge ■ Knowing how to do something ○ Conditional Knowledge ■ Knowing when and why to use strategies ● Importance: ○ Metacognition improves learning, self-regulation, and problem-solving ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● OVERACHIEVERS AND GIFTED STUDENTS Characteristics of Gifted Students ○ Advanced reasoning skills ○ Creativity ○ Curiosity ○ Strong memory ○ High motivation Overachievers ○ Students who consistently perform beyond expectations due to discipline and motivation ○ Character Example: Alex Dunphy (Modern Family) Teacher’s Role: ○ Provide enrichment activities ○ Encourage creativity ○ Avoid boredom in class UNDERACHIEVERS Students whose performance is below their potential Withdrawn underachievers ○ Quiet ○ Low confidence ○ Avoid participation Aggressive Underachievers ○ Disruptive behavior ○ Resistance to authority ○ May hide insecurity through aggression PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT Strongly influences adolescent success Positive Effects ○ Better academic achievement ○ Improved discipline ○ Stronger emotional support Negative Effects ○ Lack of independence/autonomy ○ Lack of self-competence Teachers and parents should work collaboratively DEVELOPING OCCUPATIONAL SKILLS Adolescents begin preparing for future careers Important skills: ○ Communication ○ Leadership ○ Time management ○ Collaboration ○ Problem-solving Career guidance helps adolescents make informed choices EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES Contribute to holistic development Benefits ○ Leadership development ○ Social sills ● ○ Confidence building ○ Stress reduction Examples: ○ Sports ○ Debate ○ Arts ○ School organizations SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ADOLESCENCE AS “A TALE OF TWO CITIES” Adolescence is often described as both: ○ The best of times — discovery, friendships, opportunities ○ The worst of times — confusion, stress, and insecurity ● This stage contains emotional highs and lows ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● SELF-UNDERSTANDING Adolescents increasingly reflect on who they are Areas of Self-understanding ○ Personality ○ Beliefs ○ Abilities ○ Goals They become more self-conscious and reflective DEVELOPING SELF-ESTEEM One’s evaluation of self-worth Influences: ○ Peer acceptance ○ Academic success ○ Family relationships ○ Social media Healthy self-esteem supports resilience and confidence FRIENDSHIP AND INTIMACY Friendships become deeper and emotionally meaningful during adolescence Characteristics: ○ Loyalty ○ Trust ○ Emotional sharing Romantic relationships may also emerge IDENTITY ISSUES Adolescents explore questions such as: ○ “Who am I?” ○ “What do I believe in?” ○ “What do I want to become?” Identity formation is a major developmental task John Marcia’s Identity Statuses 1. Identity Foreclosure a. Commitment without exploration b. EXAMPLE: Howard’s parents want him to be an Engineer, so he takes Engineering as his university program. 2. Moratorium a. Exploration without commitment b. EXAMPLE: Rajesh keeps switching courses because he doesn’t know what he wants to do. 3. Identity Achievement a. Exploration followed by commitment b. EXAMPLE: Penny realizes she wants to be a sales analyst after working as a waitress, so she wants to study Marketing. 4. Identity Diffusion a. Lack of both exploration and commitment b. EXAMPLE: Stuart doesn’t know what he wants to do and doesn’t want to study or work. ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR AMONG ADOLESCENTS ● INCLUDES: ○ Aggression ○ Bullying ○ Delinquency ■ Breaking the law ○ Rule-breaking ■ General rule-breaking (i.e. parents, school, etc.) Gerald Patterson’s Developmental Progression for Antisocial Behavior ● Proposes that antisocial behavior develops through: ○ Poor family interactions ○ Harsh discipline ○ Rejection by peers ○ Association with delinquent peers ○ Continued problem behavior CONCLUSION Adolescence is a crucial developmental stage marked by profound physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes Future teachers must understand the unique needs of adolescents in order to provide effective guidance, emotional support, and meaningful learning experience. By recognizing the complexities of adolescent development, education can help students become confident, responsible, and productive individuals in society. "Not all who wander are aimless, especially not those who seek truth beyond tradition, beyond definition, beyond the image." — Betty Warren, Mona Lisa Smile (2003)